9 Turn over 5 Study the resources in Section B of the Resource Booklet. Evaluate the view that economic development based on natural resources inevitably leads to environmental degradation (destruction). 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(Total for Question 5 = 18 marks) 13 Turn over You should have read the whole of the Resource Booklet, including Sections C and D, before attempting this question. 6 Evaluate the view that Latin American countries cannot develop whilst the USA remains the dominant global superpower. 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(Total for Question 6 = 24 marks) TOTAL FOR PAPER = 70 MARKS *P62636A* Turn over Pearson Edexcel Level 3 GCE Paper Reference 9GE0/03 Afternoon (Time 2 hours 15 minutes) Thursday 11 June 2020 Geography Advanced Paper 3 Resource Booklet Do not return this Resource Booklet with the question paper. P62636A ©2020 Pearson Education Ltd. 1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1 2 P62636A BLANK PAGE 3 Turn over P62636A SECTION A Political and economic dependence have been key features of the history of Latin (South and Central) America. Conquered by Spain and Portugal in the sixteenth century, most of the continent established its political independence by the 1820s. However, the conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires of Latin America had reduced the indigenous population to the status of slaves. The conquest led to a demographic disaster; the population collapsed from 40 million to 4 million by 1650. Black slaves from Africa helped make up the losses. Spain and Portugal exploited the Americas for whatever natural resources they could find, for example the ‘silver mountain’ at Potosi in Bolivia. Thus, Latin America became a region supplying natural resources. Venezuela Costa Rica Panama Ecuador Peru Bolivia Paraguay Uruguay Argentina Chile Falkland Islands South Georgia Brazil Colombia Guyana Suriname French Guiana Panama City San Jose Bogota Quito Lima La Paz Georgetown Paramaribo Cayenne Brasilia Asuncion Montevideo Buenos Aires Santiago South Atlantic Ocean Pacific Ocean N 500kms Caracas Figure 1 – South America showing national borders and capital cities 4 P62636A Independence, of a sort, did come to Latin America. The wars of independence were led by land owning elites against the colonial powers, Spain and Portugal. These were wars about gaining economic and political control. Since gaining independence, the newly formed nations have largely relied on exporting raw and semi-processed materials rather than developing manufacturing industries. 2. Oil 1. Bananas 4. Clothes and shoes 1. Raw sugar 1. Coffee 6. Electronics 4. Clothes and shoes 5. Passenger and cargo ships 2. Gas 1. Soya beans 3. Sulphate chemical woodpulp 1. Soya beans 3. Refined copper 1. Soya beans 3. Refined copper 1. Bananas 3. Gold 1. Raw sugar 4. Knit t-shirts 3. Gold 3. Aluminium oxide 5. Passenger and cargo ships 5. Cars Food / Drink Oil and gas Precious metals / minerals Clothes and shoes Machinery / Transportation Electronics Other Key: 5. Passenger and cargo ships 2. Refined petroleum 2. Petroleum gas 7. Other 2. Petroleum gas 1. Hard liquor 2 .Oil 3. Copper ore 1. Nutmeg 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7. Other N 500kms Figure 2 – Countries of Latin America showing their most important export by value, in 2018 5 Turn over P62636A Top 5 Exports from Latin America to the rest of the world Value in US$ billion Top 5 imports to Latin America from the rest of the world Value in US$ billion Crude oil 39 Refined oil 44 Copper ore 25 Integrated circuits 18 Soya beans 25 Automobiles 16 Automobiles 24 Electrical transmission equipment 11 Gold 18 Medicines 10 Figure 3a – Latin America's five most valuable exports and imports in 2016 0.00 1913 1920 1927 1934 1941 1948 1955 1962 1969 1976 1983 1990 1997 2004 2011 2016 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 First World War Agricultural and mineral/fuel prices (mean = 1.00) ‘Best fit’ line Second World War Oil crisis Rise of China Figure 3b – The changes in global prices for agricultural and mineral/fuel products, 1913–2016 6 P62636A Perhaps one of the most significant issues for Latin America continues to be the unequal distribution of income. One of the most obvious causes of this is the unequal distribution of land ownership (see Figures 4 and 5). Key: <0.25 0.25–0.29 0.30–0.34 0.35–0.39 0.40–0.44 0.50–0.54 0.55–0.59 >0.60 No data 0.45–0.49 Figure 4 – Global variations in the Gini Coefficient for income (larger numbers = more unequal income distribution) TOTAL LATIN AMERICA Peru Chile Paraguay Bolivia Brazil Venezuela Argentina Ecuador Uruguay Largest 1% Remaining 99% 0% 20% 10% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 77.0% 23.0% 74.5% 25.5% 71.3% 28.7% 65.7% 34.3% 48.8% 44.4% 55.6% 40.5% 59.5% 35.9% 64.1% 22.6% 77.4% 18.7% 81.3 % 51.2% Figure 5 – Land distribution in selected Latin American countries showing the percentage of land owned by the largest 1% of landowners compared with the other 99% 7 Turn over P62636A SECTION B Environmental Impacts Countries that rely on exporting raw materials have a significant impact on their environments. Latin America has some of the most fragile and threatened ecosystems on the planet. Globally, land use change (mainly deforestation) is the second largest source of anthropogenic CO2 emissions. This causes a net reduction of carbon storage in terrestrial ecosystems as well as biodiversity loss. Central and South America is the global region with the highest net carbon emissions resulting from land use change (see Figure 6). These land use changes are both a direct impact of previously forested land being turned into commercial farmland and mining areas and an indirect impact as landless peasant farmers are displaced into forested environments. 2001 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Year Total forest loss (km2) Cumulative % loss Total forest loss (km2) × 10 000 Cumulative % loss 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Figure 6 – Total forest loss and cumulative forest loss in Latin America, 2001–2013 8 P62636A São Paulo Rio de Janerio Caribbean Coral reefs at risk Sea-level rise concerns Lima Santiago Montevideo La Plata delta Sea-level rise concerns Salvador Recife Key South America Cities Population density Climate change hotspot More precipitation Less precipitation Negative agricultural changes Changes in ecosystems Reduced water availability Depletion of fisheries Melting of glaciers Coral bleaching Sea-level rise concerns and affected major cities More than 20 million inhabitants Dense 10–20 million inhabitants 5–9.9 million inhabitants 1– 4.9 million inhabitants (selected cities) Risk of desertification Moderate Sparse Amazonia Cerrado Buenos Aires Bogota N 500kms Mexico City Figure 7 – The impact of climate change on Latin America, 2018 9 Turn over P62636A SECTION C Still the ‘backyard’? Since the Second World War the USA has been the dominant neo-colonial power in Latin America. Dismissively regarded as the ‘backyard’, the whole continent has been subjected to numerous interventions from its rich and powerful northern neighbour. From 1898 to 2016, the US government has intervened successfully to change governments in Latin America at least 56 times (see Figure 8). These interventions involved the use of US military forces, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) or local citizens employed by US government agencies. In both the United States and Latin America, economic interests are often seen as the underlying cause of US interventions. Key Selected US intervention US military base in country (including troops) US troops currently on the ground Panama 1989 US bombing forces regime change, killing 2,000+ Chile 1973 CIA-backed coup ousts popular, democratically elected socialist president Dominican Republic 1965 Bombing and US troop invasion during elections to prevent election of left-wing leader Puerto Rico 1950 Holding island as a colony since 1898. US helps crush rebellion demanding independence Grenada 1983–84 US bombing and invasion after popular revolution Venezuela 2002 US-backed coup kills civilians, kidnaps President Hugo Chavez before the Venezuelan people force his return Guatemala 1954 CIA directs bombing, invasion and coup after newly elected government nationalises United Fruit Company lands, killing 200,000+ Cuba 1961 CIA leads Bay of Pigs invasion to topple revolution, but are defeated by Cuban people Nicaragua 1981–90 CIA funds death squads against popular people’s movement, murdering 50,000+ and destroying movement El Salvador 1981–92 US funds and trains death squads to crush the popular people’s movement, killing 75,000+ Haiti 2004 US troops remove democratically elected left-wing President Aristide: US troops occupy country Honduras 2009 US-backed coup removes democratically elected president Figure 8 – Examples of United States interventions in Latin America 10 P62636A SECTION D Bolivia – both challenged and challenging Landlocked and challenged by its geography Bolivia has long been one of the poorest, and most divided, countries in Latin America (see Figure 9). Although landlocked, Bolivia has a claim to be the most environmentally diverse country in the world. It has glaciers in the Andean cordilleras (ranges), a cold and windswept Altiplano (high plain), a temperate rainforest of the Valles Yungas and a tropical rainforest and savannah in the eastern lowlands. With a population of 10 million in a country that is about 1 million km2 it is very lightly populated. The highest densities are in and around the main cities of La Paz and Sucre on the Altiplano. It is the only Latin American country with a majority of indigenous (native) people. Most live on the Altiplano as subsistence farmers growing a variety of cash crops, including coca. This is chewed as a leaf throughout the Andean region but also the key ingredient for cocaine; a target for the US government’s ‘War on Drugs’. Bolivia was best known to Europeans for Cerro Rico (silver mountain) at Potosi exploited by the Spanish for 300 years. Potosi silver funded Spain’s power but the mines were worked by enslaved indigenous peoples. 11 Turn over P62636A 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 1500 1000 500 300 150 0 Height (m) N 0 200 km The Altiplano at 4000 metres with the Western Cordillera of the Andes in the distance The so-called ‘Death Road’ in the Valles Yungas, the only route between the Altiplano and Santa Cruz in the tropical lowlands Land cleared for soya in the Santa Cruz region Cerro Rico (Silver mountain) at Potosi La Paz Sucre Figure 9 – Views of Bolivia 12 P62636A In 2005, after successive governments dominated by the ethnically European land owning elite, Evo Morales became president. He was the first indigenous American to be elected on the continent. He symbolically renamed the country as the ‘Plurinational Republic of Bolivia’. Morales was elected twice more. In 2014, he received 61% of the total vote even winning the lowland ‘conservative’ and ethnically European state of Santa Cruz. However in 2019 he lost power in a disputed election and the future direction of Bolivia is uncertain. Previously the economic history of Bolivia was based on the extraction and production of resources for export; successively silver, tin, gas, soya and most recently lithium. In power, Morales was an anti-imperialist and tried to develop Bolivia in ways that opposed the free-market version of globalisation. He undertook modest land reform, raised corporate taxes and partly nationalised the gas industry. He used this money to address the low levels of social development on the Altiplano (see Figure 10). In doing so he alienated the wealthy elite, deprived of power since his election and some foreign governments (especially the United States) but he also found it difficult to keep his own supporters happy with what they saw as the slow pace of reform. He sought to build external relations with emerging countries that have used ‘soft’ power to extend their influence in both Africa and Latin America, most notably China and South Korea. Lithium is found in globally important quantities on the Altiplano. Lithium batteries are key to the development of electric cars. Ideally Bolivia would develop both the batteries, and even the cars, in a joint project with transnational corporations (TNCs), needed for their expertise and investment. Santa Cruz Beni Pando La Paz Oruro Potosi Tarija Chuquisaca Cochabamba Region of Bolivia N Percentage below the poverty line: Lake Titicaca 17.0% – 59.9% 60.0% – 84.9% 85.0% – 94.9% 95.0% – 97.9% 98.0% – 100% 200kms Regional boundary Figure 10 – The pattern of poverty in Bolivia and its regions 13 P62636A Another significant project is a proposed ‘ocean-to-ocean’ rail line from the Pacific to the Atlantic funded by the Chinese, German and French governments and backed by the Bolivian government. This project concerns both environmentalists and human rights groups. Many argue that the proposed route will damage the Amazonian ecosystem and negatively affect vulnerable indigenous communities both socially and culturally. PERU BOLIVIA BRAZIL PARAGUAY CHILE ARGENTINA PACIFIC OCEAN ATLANTIC OCEAN URUGUAY La Paz Santa Cruz Arica Antofagasta Rosario Buenos Aires Salta Asuncion São Paulo Campo Grande Santos Rio de Janeiro Key Main route Local routes 0 400 km Tucumán N Figure 11 – The planned ocean to ocean rail route connecting Bolivia to both oceans 14 P62636A BLANK PAGE 15 P62636A BLANK PAGE 16 P62636A BLANK PAGE Pearson Education Ltd. gratefully acknowledges all following sources used in preparation of this paper: Figure 1: https://www.ezilon.com/maps/south-american-continent-maps.html Figure 2: https://www.visualcapitalist.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/top-export-every-country- map.html Figure 3b: adapted from https://www.itau.com.br/itaubba-en/economic-analysis/publications/macro- vision/commodities-in-a-secular-decline-are-we-back-to-the-trend Figure 4: http://www.geocurrents.info/economic-geography/difficulties-calculating-inequality-and-the- gini-coefficient Figure 5: https://slideplayer.com/slide/12803918/ (Slide 4) Figure 6: https://www.cbd.int/gbo/gbo4/outlook-grulac-en.pdf Figure 7: https://environmentalmigration.iom.int/maps Figure 8: https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/234539093070934658 Figure 9: https://www.mapsofworld.com/physical-map/bolivia-physical-map.html Figure 10b: https://www.bcb.gob.bo/eeb/sites/default/files/9eeb/archivos/Jueves/402/Factores%20 climaticos%20asociados%20al%20analisis%20de%20la%20pobreza%20en%20Bolivia%20Datos%20de%20 corte%20transversal%20-%202012.pdf (page 36) Figure 11: https://www.telesurenglish.net/news/Bolivia-Brazil-Paraguay-Peru-Agree-on-Framework-for- South-Americas-Bi-Oceanic-Railway-20180616-0004.html